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Naga people

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This article is about the modern ethnic group. For other uses, see Naga (disambiguation).

Nagas
နာဂလူမျိုး
Naga ethnic flag
Sümi Nagas in traditional dress
Total population
c. 2,900,000+
Regions with significant populations
 India2.5 million+[1]
          Nagaland1,600,000+
          Manipur650,000+
          Arunachal Pradesh150,000+
          Assam40,000+
          Meghalaya2,556
          Mizoram760
 Myanmar300,000[2]
           Naga SAZ120,000+[3]
           Sagaing DivisionN/A
           Kachin StateN/A
Languages
Naga, Northern Naga, Nagamese Creole, English, Burmese
Religion
Majority - Christianity (Predominantly Baptist),[4] Minority - Buddhism, Hinduism, Animism (including Heraka, Krüna/Pfütsana, Rangfrah and Tingkao Ragwang Chapriak)
Related ethnic groups

Nagas (Burmese: နာဂလူမျိုး) are various Southeast Asian Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups native to northwestern Myanmar and northeastern India. The groups have similar cultures and traditions, and form the majority of population in the Indian state of Nagaland and Naga Self-Administered Zone of Myanmar (Burma); with significant populations in Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in India; Sagaing Region and Kachin State in Myanmar.

The Nagas are divided into various Naga ethnic groups whose numbers and populations are unclear. They each speak distinct Naga languages often unintelligible to the others, but all are loosely connected to each other.

Etymology

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The present day Naga people have historically been referred to by many names, like "Noga" or "Naka" by the inhabitants of the Ahom kingdom in what is now considered as Assam which means "people with pierced ears",[5] "Hao" by Meitei people of Imphal Valley[6] and "Nakas" by Burmese of what is now considered as Myanmar.[7] However, over time "Naga" became the commonly accepted nomenclature, and was also used by the British. According to the Burma Gazetteer, the term 'Naga' is of doubtful origin and is used to describe hill tribes that occupy the country between the Chins in the south and Kachins (Singphos) in the Northeast.[8]

History

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Main article: History of the Nagas
Naga tribemen wearing warpaint c. 1905

Aside from developing contacts with the Ahom kingdom. During the 19th century, the British attempted to subjugate the Naga tribes and abolish traditional Naga practices such as headhunting and intertribal violence.[9] After India became independent from British rule in 1947, the Naga became Indian citizens, though an ongoing ethnic conflict exists in the region since 1958.[9]

Mongkawng

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According to the Burmese chronicles Tagung Yazawin, the first Chaopha of Mongkawng Samlongpha (1150–1201 CE) with the main town in Mogaung captured Naga country in the early 1200s. In the chronicle Naga country is named as "Khang Se".[10]

Mongkawng in North in 1572

Kingdom of Mongmao

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Nagaland under Mong Mao (yellow) ruler Si Kefa in 1360 CE

According to the History of Hsenwi state chronicle and Mengguo Zhanbi, in 1318, Si Kefa, the ruler of Mongmao appointed his brother Sanlongfa as the general and led an army of 90,000 to attack the king of Mong Wehsali Long ( Assam). In the end, he designed a plan to make Mong Wehsali Long surrender and pay tribute every 3 years. Hkum Sam Long accepted the terms made by the ministers of Mong Wehsali Long and marched back to Mongmao.[11][12]

Kingdom of Ava

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In Yan-aung-myin Pagoda inscription found in Pinya of Myanmar mentions that the Kingdom of Ava under Minkhaung I (1400–1421) in the early 1400s extended till the territories of the Nagas.[13]

Ava kingdom in 1450

Culture

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A Chakhesang Naga man
Two Yimkhiung Naga women weaving traditional shawl
A Naga boy from Nagaland, during Hornbill Festival

Art

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The Naga people love colour, as is evident in the shawls designed and woven by women, and in the headgear that both sexes design. Clothing patterns are traditional to each group, and the cloths are woven by the women. They use beads in variety, profusion and complexity in their jewelry, along with a wide range of materials including glass, shell, stone, teeth or tusk, claws, horns, metal, bone, wood, seeds, hair, and fibre.[14]

According to Dr. Verrier Elwin, these groups made all the goods they used, as was once common in many traditional societies:

they have made their own cloth, their own hats and rain-coats; they have prepared their own medicines, their own cooking-vessels, their own substitutes for crockery.[15]

Craftwork includes the making of baskets, weaving of cloth, wood carving, pottery, metalwork, jewellery-making and bead-work.

Weaving of colorful woolen and cotton shawls is a central activity for women of all Nagas. One of the common features of Naga shawls is that three pieces are woven separately and stitched together. Weaving is an intricate and time consuming work and each shawl takes at least a few days to complete. Designs for shawls and wraparound garments (commonly called mekhala) are different for men and women.

Ancestral Naga Beads, Courtesy Wovensouls Collection

Among many groups the design of the shawl denotes the social status of the wearer. Some of the more known shawls include Tsüngkotepsü and Rongsü of the Aos; Sütam, Ethasü, Longpensü of the Lothas; Süpong of the Sangtams, Rongkhim and Tsüngrem Khim of the Yimkhiungs; and the Angami Lohe shawls with thick embroidered animal motifs.

Naga jewelry is an equally important part of identity, with the entire community wearing similar bead jewelry, specifically the necklace.[16]

The Indian Chamber of Commerce has filed an application seeking registration of traditional Naga shawls made in Nagaland with the Geographical Registry of India for Geographical Indication.[17]

Cuisine

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Smoked pork with akhuni, a fermented soybean product
Main article: Naga cuisine

Naga cuisine is characterized by smoked and fermented foods.

Folk song and dance

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Folk songs and dances are essential ingredients of the traditional Naga culture. The oral tradition is kept alive through the media of folk tales and songs. Naga folk songs are both romantic and historical, with songs narrating entire stories of famous ancestors and incidents. Seasonal songs describe activities done in a particular agricultural cycle. The early Western missionaries opposed the use of folk songs by Naga Christians as they were perceived to be associated with spirit worship, war, and immorality. As a result, translated versions of Western hymns were introduced, leading to the slow disappearance of indigenous music from the Naga hills.[18]

Folk dances of the Nagas are mostly performed in groups in synchronized fashion, by both men and women, depending on the type of dance. Dances are usually performed at festivals and religious occasions. War dances are performed mostly by men and are athletic and martial in style. All dances are accompanied by songs and war cries by the dancers. Indigenous musical instruments made and used by the people are tati, bamboo mouth organs, bamboo flutes, trumpets, drums made of cattle skin and log drums.[19]

Religion

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Main article: Christianity in Nagaland

Traditionally, the Nagas practiced animism, venerating natural elements such as the sun, moon, trees, and stones. They believed in a Supreme Being and various lesser spirits associated with nature, conducting rituals and sacrifices to appease these entities. This deep connection to nature was central to their worldview and daily life.[20]

In the mid-19th century, Christian missionaries, particularly from the American Baptist denomination, introduced Christianity to the Naga hills. The Nagas embraced the new faith, leading to a significant religious transformation. Today, Christianity is the predominant religion among the Naga people, with over 87% identifying as Christians, making Nagaland one of the three Christian-majority states in India.[21][22]

While Christianity dominates, remnants of traditional beliefs persist, especially in cultural practices and festivals. Some Nagas integrate indigenous rituals with Christian practices, reflecting a syncretic approach to spirituality. Additionally, there are small minorities practicing other religions (such as Buddhism)[23], but they constitute a very limited portion of the population. In Myanmar, the term "Naga" holds significance in Buddhist mythology, referring to serpent-like beings often depicted in religious art and architecture.[24]

Festivals

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Main article: List of traditional Naga festivals

The various Naga groups have their own distinct festivals. To promote inter-group interaction, the Government of Nagaland has organized the annual Hornbill Festival since 2000. Another inter-ethnic festival is Lui Ngai Ni. The group-specific festivals include:[25]

Hornbill Festival
Festival Ethnic group Time Major center
Aoleang Konyak April (first week) Mon
Chagaa, Gaan-Ngai, Hega n'gi, Mlei-Ngyi Zeliangrong Communities - (Liangmei, Rongmei, and Zeme) December (last week), 10 March for Melei-Ngyi Tamenglong–Cachar, Peren
Chavan Kumhrin Anāl October (23) Chandel
Chiithuni Mao January (7) Senapati
Kaīvi Lainong January/March Lahe
Luira Phanit Tangkhul February/March Ukhrul
Metümnyo Yimkhiung August (second week) Shamator
Miu Khiamniungan May (second week) Noklak
Moatsü Ao May (first week) Mokokchung
Mungmung Sangtam September (first week) Kiphire
Monyü Phom April (first week) Longleng
Naknyulüm Chang July (second week) Tuensang
Ngada Rengma November (last week) Tseminyü
Sekrenyi Angami February Kohima, Chümoukedima
Sükhrünyie, Tsükhenyie Chakhesang January & March/April Phek
Thounii Poumai January (18th to 22nd) Senapati
Tokhü Emong Lotha November (first week) Wokha
Tülüni, Ahuna Sümi July Zünheboto
Yemshi Pochury September/October Phek

Ethnic groups

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Main article: List of Naga ethnic groups

The word Naga originated as an exonym.[26] Today, it covers a number of ethnic groups that reside in Nagaland, Manipur, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh states of India, and also in Myanmar.

  • A group of Angami Nagas
    A group of Angami Nagas
  • The attire of Chang Nagas
    The attire of Chang Nagas
  • Sumi Naga girls in traditional dress
    Sumi Naga girls in traditional dress

Before the arrival of the British, the term "Naga" was used by Assamese to refer to certain isolated ethnic groups. The British adopted this term for a number of ethnic groups in the surrounding area, based on loose linguistic and cultural associations. The number of groups classified as "Naga" grew significantly in the 20th century: as of December 2015, 89 groups are classified as Naga by the various sources. This expansion in the "Naga" identity has been due to a number of factors including the quest for upward mobility in the society of Nagaland, and the desire to establish a common purpose of resistance against dominance by other groups. In this way, the "Naga" identity has not always been fixed.[27]

Nagas in India

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Nagas population are spread across all Northeast Indian States except Tripura and are listed as scheduled tribes in 6 Northeastern States: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland.[28]

Nagas in Myanmar

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Nagas in Myanmar are mostly found in Sagaing Division and Kachin state. The Naga territory in Myanmar is marked by Kabaw valley in the south bordering to the Chin state, the Kachin on the north and the Burmese on the east.[29]

The Major Naga ethnic groups in Myanmar are:

  1. Konyak (Chen)
  2. Lainong (Htangan)
  3. Makury
  4. Nokko (Khiamniungan)
  5. Para
  6. Somra Tangkhul
  7. Tangshang

Some other minor Naga groups are Anāl, Lamkang, Moyon, Koka (sometimes spelt as Goga or Koki), Longphuri, Paung Nyuan (Makhyam), etc

The townships which are inhabited by the Nagas are:

  1. Homalin
  2. Lahe with Tanbakwe sub-township
  3. Layshi with Mowailut sub-township and Somra sub-township
  4. Hkamti
  5. Nanyun with Pangsau and Dunghi sub-township
  6. Tamu of Sagaing Division and
  7. Tanai of Kachin state

Anāl and Moyon are mainly found in Tamu township on the south and a few Somra Nagas are also found in and around Tamu bordering to Layshi jurisdiction. Makury, Para and Somra tribes are mainly found in Layshi township. Makury Nagas and a few Somra Nagas are also found in Homalin township. Lahe is highly populated by Konyak, Nokko, Lainong and Makury tribes. Nanyun on the north is the home of Tangshang tribe which comprises more than 54 sub-dialect groups. Homlin township is highly populated by the considered lost tribes (Red Shans). But Kukis, Burmese, Chinese and Indians are also found there. Hkamti township is populated altogether by all the Naga tribes majority and with a number of Burmese, Shans, Chinese and Indians. Tanai in Kachin state of Myanmar is inhabited by the Tangshang Nagas among the Kachin people.

Genetics

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Naga people, indigenous to northwestern Myanmar and northeastern India exhibit a complex genetic profile shaped by ancient migrations and interactions with neighboring populations.[30]

Genetic studies have revealed that approximately 68–78% of the Naga genetic makeup is linked to East Asian populations, including groups such as the Naxi and Yi. This connection suggests a significant ancestral lineage from regions in and around the upper-middle Yellow River basin, indicating ancient migrations from East Asia into the Indian subcontinent. The remaining 22–32% of the Naga genome is associated with Tibetan populations, reflecting gene flow from the Tibetan Plateau. This component highlights the historical interactions and migrations between the Tibetan Plateau and the northeastern regions of India and Myanmar.[31]

Genetic studies have also identified that Naga males predominantly belong to Y chromosome haplogroups associated with East and Southeast Asia populations. Notably, haplogroup O2-M122, common among Sino-Tibetan-speaking groups, is prevalent among the Nagas. This haplogroup is linked to ancient migrations from the upper-middle Yellow River basin, suggesting a deep ancestral connection to East Asian lineages.[32]

Languages

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Main article: List of Naga languages

The Naga languages are either classified under the Chin-Naga languages or the Sal languages.

Nagas have more language diversity than any other ethnic group or states in India. Naga people speak over 89 languages and dialects, mostly unintelligible with each other. However, there are many similarities among the languages spoken by them. The diversity of languages and traditions of the Nagas results most likely from the multiple cultural absorptions that occurred during their successive migrations. According to legend, before settling in the region, these groups moved over vast zones, and in the process, some clans were absorbed into one or more other groups. Therefore, until recent times, absorptions were a source of many interclan conflicts.[33]

In 1967, the Nagaland Assembly proclaimed English as the official language of Nagaland and it is the medium for education in Nagaland. Other than English, Nagamese, a creole language form of the Assamese language, is a widely spoken language. Every community has its own mother tongue but communicates with other communities in either Nagamese or English. However, English is the predominant spoken and written language in Nagaland. Hindi is also taught along with English in most schools and most Nagas prefer to use Hindi to communicate with the migrant workers of the state, that primarily comes from Bihar, UP and Madhya Pradesh. Since 2022, Hindi in Northeastern India has been taught in school until class 10.[34]

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  • An Angami Naga girl in her traditional attire
    An Angami Naga girl in her traditional attire
  • An Ao Naga woman in her traditional attire
    An Ao Naga woman in her traditional attire
  • Ao Naga woman in her traditional ornaments
    Ao Naga woman in her traditional ornaments
  • A Lotha Naga girl in her traditional attire
    A Lotha Naga girl in her traditional attire
  • An Ao Naga girl in her traditional attire
    An Ao Naga girl in her traditional attire

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Census of India". Census India. MHA, Govt of India. Archived from the original on 27 April 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
  2. ^ "Naga ethnic group Myanmar". 13 November 2014. Archived from the original on 11 October 2022. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
  3. ^ "Nagas of Myanmar". Archived from the original on 11 October 2022. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
  4. ^ "In Christian Nagaland, indigenous religion of pre-Christian Nagas withstands test of time". 4 January 2018.
  5. ^ Grierson. Linguistic Survey of India Vol iii part ii. p. 194.
  6. ^ Hodson, TC (1911). The Naga tribes of Manipur. p. 9.
  7. ^ Upper Chindwin District vol A. Burma Gazetteer. p. 22.
  8. ^ Burma Gazetteer, Upper chindwin vol A. page 23. published 1913
  9. ^ a b "Nagaland – Government and society". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  10. ^ (Gogoi 1956:133)
  11. ^ 佚名 著; 龚肃政 译; 杨永生 注. 银云瑞雾的勐果占璧简史. 勐果占璧及勐卯古代诸王史. 昆明: 云南民族出版社. 1988: 1–51. ISBN 7-5367-0352-X.
  12. ^ "Hso Hkan Hpa (Sikefa) ordered an army of nine hundred' thousand,men to march against Mong Wehsali Long (Assam) under the command of his brother Hkun Sam Long (this is the Sam-Suns pha of Elias and ths ministers Tao Hso Han Kai and Tao Hso Yen. When they reach. Wehsali Long, some cowherds reported the arrival of the army from Kawsampi, the country of white blossoms and larse leaves and the ministers submitted without resistance and promised to make annual payment of twenty - five ponies, seven elephants, twenty-four vi;s of gold, and- two hundred viss of silver every three years. Hkum Sam Long accepted these terms and commenced his march back. The two other generals, Tao Hso Yen and Tao Hso Han Kai, sent on messengers to Hso Hkan Hpa with a story that Hkun Sall Long had obtained the easy submission of Wehsali Long by conspiring with the king of that place to dethrone Hso Hkan Hpa. The Sawbwa believed the story and sent poisoned food to his brother, which Hkun Sam Long ate at Mong Kong (Mogaung)"(Scott 1967:18)
  13. ^ "The recently discovered Yan-aung-myin pagoda inscription at ' 'Themaunggan, south of Pinya (Obverse, line 8, 762 s.), claims that in 1400 CE the rule of the king extended beyond the Kandu (Kadu) and the Ponlon amri yols ("Palaungs who grow tails"), to the "heretic kingdoms of the Naked Nagas on the borders of Khamti Khun lcyviw (?),"(Luce & Htway 1976:174)
  14. ^ Ao, Ayinla Shilu. Naga Tribal Adornment: Signatures of Status and Self (The Bead Society of Greater Washington. September 2003) ISBN 0-9725066-2-4
  15. ^ "Arts and crafts of the Nagas" Archived 19 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Nagaland, Retrieved 23 June 2009
  16. ^ Koiso, Manabu; Endo, Hitoshi. "Necklace of ethnic groups of Naga, India: their meaning and function through time". nomadit.co.uk. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  17. ^ "Naga shawls in for geographical registration", AndhraNews.net, 7 April 2008
  18. ^ Shikhu, Inato Yekheto. A Re-discovery and Re-building of Naga Cultural Values: An Analytical Approach with Special Reference to Maori as a Colonized and Minority Group of People in New Zealand (Daya Books, 2007), p. 210
  19. ^ Mongro, Kajen & Ao, A Lanunungsang. Naga Cultural Attires and Musical Instruments (Concept Publishing Company, 1999), ISBN 81-7022-793-3
  20. ^ "A Study of Traditional Religion of the Nagas with Special Reference to the Sümi Nagas" (PDF).
  21. ^ "In Christian Nagaland, indigenous religion of pre-Christian Nagas withstands test of time". The Indian Express. 4 January 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
  22. ^ Project, Joshua. "Naga in India". joshuaproject.net. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
  23. ^ admin (30 May 2014). "Forced Conversion to Buddhism in Eastern Nagaland". Burma Link. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
  24. ^ "Origins Of Naga Worship In Buddhism". burmese-buddha.com. 26 November 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
  25. ^ "Tourism: General Information". Government of Nagaland. Archived from the original on 30 October 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  26. ^ Christopher Moseley (6 December 2012). Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages. Routledge. pp. 572–. ISBN 978-1-135-79640-2. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
  27. ^ Arkotong Longkumer (4 May 2010). Reform, Identity and Narratives of Belonging: The Heraka Movement in Northeast India. Continuum. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-0-8264-3970-3. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
  28. ^ Scheduled tribes Archived 31 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine (PDF)
  29. ^ "India News, Nagaland News, Breaking News |". Archived from the original on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 26 October 2019.
  30. ^ Saha, N.; Tay, J. S. (May 1990). "Genetic studies among the Nagas and Hmars of eastern India". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 82 (1): 101–112. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330820111. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 2349969.
  31. ^ Liu, Chi-Chun; Witonsky, David; Gosling, Anna; Lee, Ju Hyeon; Ringbauer, Harald; Hagan, Richard; Patel, Nisha; Stahl, Raphaela; Novembre, John; Aldenderfer, Mark; Warinner, Christina; Di Rienzo, Anna; Jeong, Choongwon (8 March 2022). "Ancient genomes from the Himalayas illuminate the genetic history of Tibetans and their Tibeto-Burman speaking neighbors". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 1203. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.1203L. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-28827-2. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 8904508. PMID 35260549.
  32. ^ Joshi, Bhawana; Lemtur, Sentibenla; Humtsoe, Marlyn; Verma, Kapil; Kumawat, R. K.; Kushwaha, Pushpesh; Kumar, Akshay; Srivastav, Kunwar Veer Vikram; Srivastava, Ankit; Shrivastava, Pankaj (1 March 2022). "Genetic portrait of 23 Y-STR loci in the Naga tribes of Nagaland, India". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 136 (2): 559–560. doi:10.1007/s00414-021-02662-4. ISSN 1437-1596. PMID 34292382.
  33. ^ Drouyer, Azevedo, Isabel, Drouyer, René, THE NAGAS -MEMORIES OF HEADHUNTERS vol.1, White Lotus, 2016, p. 7
  34. ^ Scroll Staff. "Hindi will be made compulsory in northeastern states till Class 10, says Amit Shah". Scroll.in. Archived from the original on 18 April 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.

Further reading

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  • Scott, James George (1967), Hsenwi State Chronicle
  • Luce, G.H; Htway, Tin (1976), "A 15th Century Inscription and Library at Pagán, Burma", Malalasekera Commemoration Volume. Colombo: The Malalasekera Commemoration Volume Editorial Committee, Dept of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Ceylon, pp. 203–256
  • Gogoi, Padmeswar (1956). The political expansion of the Mao Shans.
  • Drouyer, A. Isabel, Drouyer René, " THE NAGAS: MEMORIES OF HEADHUNTERS- Indo-Burmese Borderlands vol.1"; White Lotus, 2016, ISBN 978-2-9545112-2-1.
  • Wettstein, Marion. 2014. Naga Textiles: Design, Technique, Meaning and Effect of a Local Craft Tradition in Northeast India. Arnoldsche, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3-89790-419-4.
  • von Stockhausen, Alban. 2014. Imag(in)ing the Nagas: The Pictorial Ethnography of Hans-Eberhard Kauffmann and Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf. Arnoldsche, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3-89790-412-5.
  • Shongzan, Mayaso, "A Portrait of the Tangkhul Nagas"; Exodus, 2013, ISBN 978-81-929139-0-2.
  • Stirn, Aglaja & Peter van Ham. The Hidden world of the Naga: Living Traditions in Northeast India. London: Prestel.
  • Oppitz, Michael, Thomas Kaiser, Alban von Stockhausen & Marion Wettstein. 2008. Naga Identities: Changing Local Cultures in the Northeast of India. Gent: Snoeck Publishers.
  • Kunz, Richard & Vibha Joshi. 2008. Naga – A Forgotten Mountain Region Rediscovered. Basel: Merian.
  • Singh, Waikhom Damodar (21 June 2002). "The Indo - Naga Ceasefire Agreement". Manipur Online (originally published in The Sangai Express). Archived from the original on 26 May 2005.
  • Shimray, Atai, A.S. - "Let freedom ring?: Story of Naga nationalism".

Novels

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